Many Europeans are proud of it. Some think it is too bad. However, both agree that Europe is a secularized continent. Europeans do not go to church anymore, they do not believe in God anymore, and they do not seem to be religious at all. Are these assumptions valid? It depends. Unmistakable, some of them are not. One thing is for sure: the old continent is not as secularized as it seems.
Chart: Percentage of people who say religion is very or quite important in their lives
Source: Atlas of European Values
Chart: Europeans that consider themselves religious, not religious or atheist
Source: Atlas of European Values
Europeans who consider themselves atheists are a small minority, except in France and in Sweden, where about 20 per cent say that they are atheists; a vast majority of all Europeans nominate themselves as religious persons.
Chart: Percentage of people that attend religious services (apart from weddings, funerals and christenings) at least once a week
Source: Atlas of European Values
As can be seen from the chart, most Europeans define themselves as religious people, but more people consider themselves as religious as there are people who attend religious services (apart from weddings, funerals and christenings) at least once a week. With the word of the sociologist Grace Davie, it’s a kind of ‘believing without belonging’. People pick and choose religious beliefs, doctrines, and practices and they are mixing and matching them, as they would select food in a cafeteria, so we can talk of ‘cafeteria religion’, or as ‘church-free spirituality’. Europeans remain religious, their approach is eclectic, and they borrow ideas from several traditions. Meanwhile, many institutionalized churches are running empty, especially in the West.
Furthermore, a big gap exists between the more secularized north-western European countries and the more traditional south-eastern ones.
Chart: Percentage of people that say religion is very or quite important in their lives (young vs elderly)
Source: Atlas of European Values
The graph shows the existence of a difference in the importance attributed to religion between young and old people: while the elderly seem to prioritize it more, the young appear to consider it less important (except for Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Georgia, in which the values are similar). This gap, on the one hand, could reflect a generational trend towards greater secularization of society; on the other hand, the importance of religion for the elderly could be rooted in their life experiences, family traditions, and more traditional social structures.
Chart: Percentage of people that say religion is very or quite important in their lives (urban high vs urban low)
Source: Atlas of European Values
Traditionally, it might be thought that rural areas are more conservative and religious (as seen in the chart above). Still, the opposite may also be true in some contexts (i.e., France, Turkey, and Germany). This phenomenon could reflect a variety of social and cultural dynamics: for example, in the city, there might be greater religious diversity and a presence of different religious communities, so the people consider religion a vital part of their social identity; alternatively, in cities, people might find more liberal or progressive forms of religion that resonate with their personal values.
To study in depth and become acquainted with our studies on the European Value of Religion, please refer to our publications based on the EVS data and listed in the EVS Bibliography (the EVS Bibliography is annually updated) of which you can find below an excerpt of the latest:
Aizpurua, Eva; Fitzgerald, Rory; Barros, Julia Furtado de; Giacomin, Gregorio; Lomazzi, Vera; Luijkx, Ruud; Maineri, Angelica and Negoita, Daniela (2022): “Exploring the feasibility of ex-post harmonisation of religiosity items from the European Social Survey and the European Values Study”. In: Measurement Instruments for the Social Sciences 4 (1): 1-23.
Albanese, Anthony (2023): “Perceived Threat, Reactive Identification, and Religious Change: Right-Wing Secularization in Germany, 1999–2017”. In: Religions 14 (5): 1-20.
Anckar, Carsten (2021): “Religion and Democracy. A Worldwide Comparison”. Abingdon: Routledge.
Argoud, Julien (2021): “How Religiosity Shapes Satisfaction with Democracy: A Mediterranean Case Study”. In: Inquiries Journal 13 (10): 1-10.
Arnolfo, Stefano and Todesco, Lorenzo (2022): “Gli ultimi saranni i primi. L’ipotesi della compensazione nella relazione tra classe sociale e religiosità in Italia”. In: Polis 36 (1): 33-70.
Bein, Christoph; Gauthier, Anne H. and Mynarska, Monika (2021): “Religiosity and Fertility Intentions: Can the Gender Regime Explain Cross-Country Differences?”. In: European Journal of Population 37: 443–472.
Bénabou, Roland; Ticchi, Davide and Vindigni, Andrea (2022): “Forbidden Fruits: The Political Economy of Science, Religion, and Growth”. In: The Review of Economic Studies 89 (4): 1785-1832.
Bentzen, Jeanet Sinding and Gokmen, Gunes (2023): “The power of religion”. In: Journal of Economic Growth 28: 45–78.
Bešić, Miloš and Veković, Marko (2023): “Image of God and Democratic Orientation: What Kind of God Matters?”. In: Nordic Journal of Religion and Society 36 (1): 4-18.
Bilash, Oleksandr and Mendzhul, Mariya (2022): “The phenomenon of “Soviet atheism” and its consequences for the family law of Ukraine”. In: Rocznik Teologiczny 64 (3): 707-735.
Biolcati Rinaldi, Ferruccio; Molteni, Francesco; Quandt, Markus and Vezzoni, Cristiano (2022): “Church Attendance and Religious change Pooled European dataset (CARPE): a survey harmonization project for the comparative analysis of long-term trends in individual religiosity”. In: Quality & Quantity: International Journal of Methodology 56: 1729–1753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-020-01048-9.
Blagojevic, Mirko and Bakrac, Vladimir (2020): “Социальные структуры, социальные институты и процессы (Dynamics of people’s attachment to the (orthodox) religion and the church in Serbia)”. In: Research Result. Sociology and management 6 (3): 77-90.
Bognár, Bulcsu and Kmetty, Zoltán (2020): “Believing without moralising: Secularised religiousness in Hungary”. In: Social Compass 67 (4): 576-598. First published online: September 10, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1177/0037768620949064.
Bréchon, Pierre and Zwilling, Anne-Laure (eds.) (2020): “Indifférence religieuse ou athéisme militant? Penser l’irréligion aujourd’hui”. Libres cours – Politique. Fontaine: Presses universitaires de Grenoble. https://www.pug.fr/produit/1859/9782706147661/indifference-religieuse-ou-atheisme-militant.
Borooah, Vani Kant (2023): “Economics, Religion and Happiness: God, Mammon and the Search for Spiritual and Financial Wealth”. London: Routledge.
Bullini Orlandi, Ludovico; Febo, Valentina and Perdichizzi, Salvatore (2022): “The role of religiosity in product and technology acceptance: Evidence from COVID-19 vaccines”. In: Technological Forecasting and Social Change 185: 1-11.
Ciziceno, Marco (2021): “The Influence of Religion on Life Satisfaction in Italy”. In: Italian Sociological Review 11 (2): 467- 484.
Coutinho, José Pereira (2023): “Clusters of religiosity of Portuguese population”. In: Análise Social 50 (216): 601-631.
Coutinho, José P. (2023): “Portuguese Youth Religiosity in Comparative Perspective”. In: Religions 14 (2): 1-15.
Coutinho, José Pereira and Laflamme, Sarah Wilkins (2023): “Religiously Unaffiliated Youth in Europe: Shifting Remnants of Belief and Practice in Contexts of Diffused Religion and Cohort Decline”. In: Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.
Coutinho, José Pereira and Wilkins-Laflamme, Sarah (2023): “Youth Religiosity in Catholic European Countries”. In: Journal of Religion in Europe 16 (3): 316-351
Cremer, Tobias (2023): “The Godless Crusade: Religion, Populism and Right-Wing Identity Politics in the West”. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Czeglédi, Pál (2023): “Why is the West unique in linking religiosity to market friendliness?”. In: Economic Affairs 43 (1): 73- 88.
Dargent, Claude (2021): “Religion, frontières nationales et clivages culturels en Europe”. In: Revue européenne des sciences sociales 59 (2): 39-68.
Dargent, Claude (2021): “Catholics, Muslims and the “nones”: old and new cultural and political divides”. In: French Politics 19 (2): 250-280.
DeRose, Laurie Fields (2021): “Gender Equity, Religion, and Fertility in Europe and North America”. In: Population & Development Review 47 (1): 41-55.
Díaz de Rada, Vidal and Gil-Gimeno, Javier (2023): “Have the Inhabitants of France, Great Britain, Spain, and the US Been Secularized? An Analysis Comparing the Religious Data in These Countries”. In: Religions 14 (8): 1-48.
Dingemans, Ellen and Van Ingen, Erik (2015): “Does Religion Breed Trust? A Cross-National Study of the Effects of Religious Involvement, Religious Faith, and Religious Context on Social Trust”. In: Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 54 (4): 739-755. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12217.
Domínguez, Rafael and López-Noval, Borja (2021): “Religiosity and Life Satisfaction Across Countries: New Insights from the Self-Determination Theory”. In: Journal of Happiness Studies 22 (3): 1165–1188. First published online: May 22, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-020-00268-y.
Eriksson, Kimmo; Vartanova, Irina; Ornstein, Petra and Strimling, Pontus (2021): “The common-is-moral association is stronger among less religious people”. In: Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 8 (1): 1-8.
Evans, M. D. R. and Kelley, Jonathan (2022): “Diversity in Religiosity Undermines Conventional Personal Morality Across the Globe: Evidence From 90 Nations, 300,000+ Individuals”. In: Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 66 (1): 41-74.
Fernández, Juan J.; Jaime-Castillo, Antonio M.; Mayrl, Damon and Valiente, Celia (2021): “Societal religiosity and the gender gap in political interest, 1990–2014”. In: The British Journal of Sociology 72 (2): 252-269. First published online: September 17, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-4446.12789.
Fidan, Ahmet (2021): “The effect of religious factors on traditional gender beliefs in Turkey”. In: Sosyolojik Düşün 6 (1): 1- 18.
Field, Clive D. (2021): “Counting Religion in Britain, 1970-2020: Secularization in Statistical Context”. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Fileva, Yana (2023): “Relationship Between Religion and Health on the Topic of Euthanasia”. In: Postmodernism Problems 13 (2): 248-267.
Fokas, Effie (2012): “‘Eastern’ Orthodoxy and ‘Western’ Secularisation in Contemporary Europe (with Special Reference to the Case of Greece)”. In: Religion, State and Society 40 (3-4): 395-414. https://doi.org/10.1080/09637494.2012.754269 .
Galina S., Klimova (2020): “European Identity between Religiousness and Secularity”. In: RUDN Journal of Political Science 22 (4): 617-633. https://doi.org/10.22363/2313-1438-2020-22-4-617-633 .
Genova, Carlo (2022): “Young Activists in Catholic Groups. Meanings of Participation Across the Boundaries of the Religious Field”. In: Italian Sociological Review 12 (5): 501-521.
Gheorghiță, Veronica and Bădescu, Alexandrina (2021): “Religious coping in times of crisis”. In: Revista de Stiinte Politice 72: 152-164.
Glas, Saskia (2023): “What Gender Values Do Muslims Resist? How Religiosity and Acculturation Over Time Shape Muslims’ Public-Sphere Equality, Family Role Divisions, and Sexual Liberalization Values Differently”. In: Social Forces 101 (3): 1199-1229.
Glas, Saskia and Spiering, Niels (2022): “The impact of anti-Muslim hostilities on how Muslims connect their religiosity to support for gender equality in Western Europe”. In: Frontiers in Political Science 4: 1-19.
Goncharova, Galina Nikolaevna (2021): “New dynamics of religious death culture in Bulgaria in the post-socialist transition period”. In: Mortality 26 (2): 187-201.
Góra, Magdalena and Zielińska, Katarzyna (2023): “Religion in the narratives of Polish members of the European Parliament – politicising European integration?”. In: Religion, State and Society 51 (4-5): 434-451.
Guglielmi, Simona and Piacentini, Arianna (2023): “Religion and National Identity in Central and Eastern European Countries: Persisting and Evolving Links”. In: East European Politics and Societies: 1-31.
Imaz, Javier Elzo (2020): “El desierto religioso en Europa occicental”. In: Sal terrae: Revista de teología pastoral 108 (1253): 199-214. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=7278330 .
Inglehart, Ronald F. (2020): “Religion’s Sudden Decline. What’s Causing it, and What Comes Next?”. New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197547045.001.0001.
Jacquet, Pierre O.; Pazhoohi, Farid; Findling, Charles; Mell, Hugo; Chevallier, Coralie and Baumard, Nicolas (2021): “Predictive modeling of religiosity, prosociality, and moralizing in 295,000 individuals from European and non-European populations”. In: Humanities and Social Sciences Communications 8 (9): 1-12.
Kageyama, Junji (2023): “Measuring National Parochialism and Explaining Its Individual Variations Using Survey Data”. In: Social Indicators Research: 1-24.
Kallatsa, Laura; Spännäri, Jenni and Tervo-Niemelä, Kati (2023): “Safety and Closeness in Religious Socialization: A Mixed Methods Study of Finnish Families”. In: Journal of Empirical Theology 36 (1): 123–142.
Kavadias, Leandros; Spruyt, Bram and Kuppens, Toon (2023): “Religious life in schooled society? A global study of the relationship between schooling and religiosity in 76 countries”. In: International Journal of Comparative Sociology: 1-24.
Kieran, Patricia; Parker-Jenkins, Marie and Ryan, Anne (2022): “Religions and beliefs in changing times: perspectives of student stakeholders in third-level educational contexts in the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland”. In: British Journal of Religious Education 44 (1): 38-52.
Kollar, Rachel; Geurts, Nella and Spierings, Niels (2023): “Religiosity and electoral turnout among Muslims in Western Europe”. In: European Political Science Review: 1-20.
Kryński, Andrzej; Bodak, Valentyna and Tkachenko, Oleksandr (2021): “Religious processes in Western Europe at the end of the XXth – the beginning of the XXIst centuries”. In: Skhidnoievropeiskyi Istorychnyi Visnyk / East European Historical Bulletin (20): 195-206.
Kutyło, Łukasz (2021): “The Crisis of Religious Institutions and Its Impact on Religiosity. The Case of Poland”. In: Studia Humanistyczne AGH 20 (3): 13-32.
Kutyło, Łukasz (2021): “Kryzys instytucji religijnych i jego wpływ na religijność. Przypadek Polski (The crisis of religious institutions and its impact on religiosity. The case of Poland)”. In: Studia Humanistyczne AGH 20 (3): 13-31.
Kutyło, Łukasz (2021): “A religiosity in the world of declining importance of religious institutions. The case of Poland”. In: Contributions to Humanities 20 (3): 13–32.
Laliotis, Ioannis and Minos, Dimitrios (2022): “Religion, social interactions, and COVID-19 incidence in Western Germany”. In: European Economic Review 141: 1-22.
Landová, Tabita (2022): “What Does Generation Z Believe? The Religiosity and Spirituality of Contemporary Czech Youth in Practical-Theological Reflection”. In: Journal of Youth and Theology 22 (2): 226–250.
Lee, Chong Wha (2023): “종교는 행복감을 높이는가? 유럽가치관조사 자료의 실증분석 (Does Religiosity enhance Subjective Well-Being in Europe? Evidence from EVS(2017-2020)”. In: Journal of Research Methodology 8 (2): 71-100.
Jagger, Carol (2022): “Are Religiosity and Spirituality Related to Self-Reported Health Expectancy? An Analysis of the European Values Survey”. In: Journal of Religion and Health 61: 2590–2604.
Luchau, P. (2007): “By Faith Alone? Church Attendance and Christian Faith in three European Countries”. In: Journal of Contemporary Religion 22 (1): 35-48.
Majidi, mohammadreza and Talkhabi, majid (2021): “A Study of the Evolution of Religiosity in Western European Societies from 1980 to 2010”. In: Religious Research 8 (16): 255-281.
Maksimovic, Andrijana and Milosavljević, Zoran T. (2022): “The Relationship Between the Dimensions of Religiousness and Militarist Political Culture Within the Citizens of Serbia”. In: Security Dimensions. International and National Studies 42: 68- 84.
Margaça, Clara and Rodrigues, Donizete (2021): “Religiosidade e Funcionamento Mental em Idosos Portugueses: Uma Perspetiva Sociopsicológica”. In: Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa 37: 1-9.
McAndrew, Siobhan (2023): “Gradualist change or sudden collapse? Religious decline and residual religiosity in Ireland”. In: Religion, Brain & Behavior: 1-10.
Mierina, Inta and Stasulane, Anita (2022): “Measuring Religious Belonging in Latvia: Controversies and Debates”. In: Religiski-filozofiski raksti 32 (1): 68-89.
Miloš, Damir and Glavaš, Dragan (2021): “The Relationship Between Religiosity of Parents and Children in Catholics – The Role of Parents in Adolescents Religious Practice”. In: Interdisciplinary Description of Complex Systems: INDECS 19 (1): 64- 79.
Minarik, Pavol (2021): “Reconstructing Religious Attendance in European Communist Countries”. In: Review of Religious Research 63: 269–285.
Misāne, Agita; Neiders, Ivars; Rungule, Ritma and Seņkāne, Silva (2022): “Thou Shalt Not Kill Except. Abortion, Euthanasia, Suicide and the Death Penalty – Justification in Religious and Secular Populations of Latvia”. In: Reliģiski-filozofiski raksti 33: 149-180.
Molteni, Francesco (2020): “A Need for Religion: Insecurity and Religiosity in the Contemporary World”. Leiden, Niederlande: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004443273.
Molteni, Francesco and Biolcati, Ferruccio (2022): “Religious Decline as a Population Dynamic: Generational Replacement and Religious Attendance in Europe”. In: Social Forces: 1-25.
Molter, Marius; Bobek, Vito; Justinek, Gorazd and Horvat, Tatjana (2022): “The influence of religiosity and culture on the economic, environmental, and social dimensions of CSR: a comparative case study of Taiwan and Austria”. In: International Journal of Happiness and Development 7 (3): 203-221.
Moon, Jordan W.; Tratner, Adam E. and McDonald, Melissa M. (2022): “Men are less religious in more gender-equal countries”. In: Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 289 (1968): 1-9.
Nešpor, Zdeněk R. (2020): “Česká a slovenská religiozita po rozpadu společného státu. Náboženství Dioskúrů”. Karlova: Univerzita Karlova.
Nezlek, John B. (2022): “Relationships Among Belief in God, Well-Being, and Social Capital in the 2020 European and World Values Surveys: Distinguishing Interpersonal and Ideological Prosociality”. In: Journal of Religion and Health 61 (3): 2569– 2588.
Nguyen Trong, Daniela (2020): “Vzťah religiozity a plodnosti v postindustriálnych krajinách”. In: Acta theologica et religionistica 9 (1): 101-106.
Odermatt, Anastas (2023): “Religion und Sozialkapital in der Schweiz: Zum eigenwilligen Zusammenhang zwischen Religiosität, Engagement und Vertrauen”. Politik und Religion. Wiesbaden: Springer VS.
Okolskaya, L. A. (2021): “ОРИЕНТАЦИЯ НА ВОСПИТАНИЕ РЕЛИГИОЗНОСТИ У ДЕТЕЙ В СЕМЬЕ В РАЗНЫХ СТРАНАХ МИРА (Orientation in intergenerational religious transmission in a family: cross-country analysis)”. In: ВЕСТНИК ОБЩЕСТВЕННОГО МНЕНИЯ. ДАННЫЕ. АНАЛИЗ. ДИСКУССИИ 132 (1-2): 107-118.
Opsahl, Tobias; Kørup, Alex Kappel; Andersen-Ranberg, Karen and Christensen, Kaare (2021): “Characteristics of Danish Centenarians’ Religious Beliefs: A Nationwide Population-Based Study”. In: Journal of Religion and Health 60: 2007–2023. First published online: January 10, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-020-00981-1.
Palmisano, Stefania and Todesco, Lorenzo (2021): “Modernizzazione e differenze di genere nella religiosità: il caso italiano”. In: Quaderni di Sociologia 87 (45): 161-186.
Palmisano, Stefania and Todesco, Lorenzo (2021): “Modernizzazione e differenze di genere nella religiosità: un approccio comparato e diacronico al caso italiano”. In: Quaderni di sociologia: 1-23.
Pavić, Željko and Jurlina, Juraj (2021): “Societalisation and Religiosity indicators in Europe: a multilevel analysis”. In: Research Result. Sociology and management 7 (3): 70-81.
Pavlyutkin, Ivan V. (2020): “Динамика религиозности молодежи в россии (Dynamics of religious commitments of young people in Russia)”. In: Research Result. Sociology and management 6 (3): 153-183. http://dx.doi.org/10.18413/2408-9338- 2020-6-3-0-10.
Pereira Coutinho, José (2023): “Religiosity in Lisbon Metropolitan Area by Age Group and Comparing with Portugal”. In: Archives de Sciences Sociales des Religions (201): 121-144.
Pless, Anna; Tromp, Paul and Houtman, Dick (2020): “The “New” Cultural Cleavage in Western Europe: A Coalescence of Religious and Secular Value Divides?”. In: Politics and Religion 13 (3): 445-464. First published online: January 14, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1017/S175504831900049X.
Pless, Anna; Tromp, Paul and Houtman, Dick (2023): “Religious and Secular Value Divides in Western Europe: A CrossNational Comparison (1981-2008)”. In: International Political Science Review 44 (2): 178–194.
Podolinská, Tatiana Zachar and Majo, Juraj (2022): “How to Approach (Non)Religion and Labelling Categories that Continue to be Fuzzy (Theoretical and Numerical Take Off )”. In: Slovenský národopis / Slovak Ethnology 70 (4): 447-474.
Pollack, Detlef; Rosta, Gergely and Shmendel, Marta (2023): “Quellen nationaler Identität: Veränderungen im Verhältnis von Nationalbewusstsein, Demokratie und Religion in der Ukraine und in Russland”. In: Leviathan 51 (3): 363-395.
Portier, P. and Willaime, J. P. (2021): “La religion dans la France contemporaine: Entre secularisation et recomposition”. Paris: Armand Colin.
Prati, Gabriele (2023): “Religion and well-being: What is the magnitude and the practical significance of the relationship?”. In: Psychology of Religion and Spirituality: 1-11.
Qayyum, Unbreen; Anjum, Sohail and Sabir, Samina (2020): “Religion and economic development: new insights”. In: Empirica (47): 793–834(. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10663-019-09456-3.
Radu, Bogdan Mihai and Angi, Daniela (2023): “Youth Religious Socialization and Social Capital. A Case Study”. In: Studia Analizy 70: 80-102.
Ramoutar, Richard S. (2022): “Do Culture and Religion Matter to Economic Growth?”. In: Research in Economics and Management 7 (2): 16-28.ù
Remizova, Alisa; Rudnev, Maksim and Davidov, Eldad (2022): “In Search of a Comparable Measure of Generalized Individual Religiosity in the World Values Survey”. In: Sociological Methods & Research: 1-33.
Rius-Ulldemolins, Joaquim; Pizzi, Alejandro and Paya, Raul (2023): “Religion as a factor in cultural consumption: Religious denomination and its impact on reading practices and ballet-opera attendance in Europe”. In: International Journal of Comparative Sociology 64 (3): 225–248.
Roberts, Louisa L. (2023): “How Exceptional Is the West? An Investigation of Worldwide Trends in Societal-Average Levels of Religiosity, 1981–2020”. In: Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 62 (3): 648-671.
Sadlon, Wojciech (2021): “Polarization but Not Pillarization Catholicism and Cultural Change in Post-Transformation Poland”. In: Religions 12 (7): 1-15.
Scappini, Ettore (2022): “Is There Really ‘Another’ Counterexample to the Secularization Thesis? Religious Dynamics in Italy Between 1910 and 2013”. In: Review of Religious Research: The Official Journal of the Religious Research Association 64: 103–126.
Schnabel, Annette (2020): “Wie viel Religion und Nation braucht der Staat? Administrativ-rechtsförmige Solidaritäten und ihre identitätsbasierten Grundlagen in Europa”. In: Berliner Journal für Soziologie 30 (1): 79-111. First published online: September 23, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11609-020-00411-9.
Shkurova, Alena V. and Reut, Elizaveta V. (2022): “Магические и религиозные представления в конфессиональном поле современного белорусского общества (Magical and religious representations in the confessional field of modern Belarusian society)”. In: Journal of the Belarusian State University. Philosophy and Psychology 2022 (3): 38-48.
Sinding Bentzen, Jeanet (2021): “In crisis, we pray: Religiosity and the COVID-19 pandemic”. In: Journal of Economic Behavior and Organization 192: 541-583.
Sooniste, Aleksandra and Schihalejev, Olga (2022): “Religious Literacy in National Curricula of Estonia”. In: Religions 13 (5): 1-19.
Stankov, Nemanja and Živković, Slaven (2022): “May the lord protect our country: ethnic relations as a moderator between religiosity and radical right vote”. In: Journal of Contemporary European Studies 30 (3): 521-535.
Stasulane, Anita (2021): “Intersection of the Religious and the Secular: The Cemetery Festival in Latvia”. In: Religions 12 (2): 1-18
Stolz, Jörg; Bünker, Arnd; Liedhegener, Antonius; Baumann-Neuhaus, Eva; Becci, Irene; Robert, Zhargalma Dandarova; Senn, Jeremy; Tanner, Pascal; Wäckerlig, Oliver and Winter-Pfändler, Urs (2022): “Religionstrends in der Schweiz: Religion, Spiritualität und Säkularität im gesellschaftlichen Wandel”. Wiesbaden: Springer VS.
Szczygielski, Dominik (2023): “Moral Attitudes in Poland: “Towards”, “Away” and “Against People” – Socio-Cultural Determinants and Religious Implications. Based on European Values Study 2017”. In: Roczniki Nauk Społecznych 51 (3): 143-164.
Tănăsescu, Gabriela (2022): “Central And Eastern European Countries’ Religiosity. Evolutions In The Last Decade.”. In: Romanian Review of Political Sciences & International Relations 19 (2): 55-74.
Tănăsescu, Gabriela (2022): “Evoluții ale Religiozitații în Țările Europei Centrale și de est în Ultimul Deceniu (Developments in Religiosity in the Last Decade in Central and Eastern European Countries)”. In: Revista de Științe Politice și Relații Internaționale 19 (1): 57-77.
Thurfjell, David and Willander, Erika (2021): “Muslims by Ascription: On Post-Lutheran Secularity and Muslim Immigrants”. In: Numen 68 (4): 307-335.
Tiaynen-Qadir, Tatiana; Qadir, Ali; Vuolanto, Pia and Hansen, Petteri (2021): “Negotiations of Science and Religion in Nordic Institutions: An Ethnographic Approach”. In: Religions 12 (1): 1-20.
Tížik, Miroslav (2022): “Forms of Non/Religiosity in Slovakia after 1989”. In: Religions 13 (7): 1-15.
Topulli, Justinian (2020): “An overview of religious belonging percentage in Albania”. In: European Journal of Research in Social Sciences 8 (5): 29-50. http://www.idpublications.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/Full-Paper-AN-OVERVIEW-OFRELIGIOUS-BELONGING-PERCENTAGE-IN-ALBANIA.pdf.
Trolle, Astrid Krabbe (2023): “Au Pair Religion: Authenticity and Ambivalence among Young Filipinos in Denmark”. In: Social Sciences and Missions 36 (1-2): 43-64.
Tromp, Paul; Pless, Anna and Houtman, Dick (2020): “‘Believing Without Belonging’ in Twenty European Countries (1981– 2008) De-institutionalization of Christianity or Spiritualization of Religion?”. In: Review of Religious Research 62 (4): 509- 531. First published online: September 19, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-020-00432-z.
Tromp, Paul; Pless, Anna and Houtman, Dick (2022): “A Smaller Pie with a Different Taste: The Evolution of the WesternEuropean Religious Landscape (European Values Study, 1981-2017)”. In: Review of Religious Research 64: 127–144.
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