Work, for some, is a dire necessity; for others, it is just pursuing a virtuous vocation. For all, however, it is a time-consuming event: forty hours a week for around forty years. It is, therefore, no surprise that work is characterized as ‘very or quite important’ by over 80% of all Europeans. And whereas in the Middle Ages, work meant hard, physical labour on the land, today, many have the possibility to choose an occupation that suits them. This makes work a central domain in people’s lives.
Chart: Percentage of people that say work is very or quite important in their lives in 2017 survey
Source: Atlas of European Values
Work ethos or work ethic is a cultural norm that places a positive moral value on doing a good job. It is based on the belief that work has an intrinsic value. In the Western world job, ethos is a relatively new concept. It was not until the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century that physical labor became culturally acceptable for all persons, even the Wealthy. One of the leading scholars in and founders of modern sociology, Max Weber (1864-1920) argued that Protestant societies had a special work ethos which played an important role in the development of Capitalism in western societies. He believed that the Protestant work ethic was one of the driving forces behind the economic prosperity of the USA and Europe.
Chart: Percentage of people that say work is very or quite important in their lives in 2017 survey
Source: Atlas of European Values
As the chart shows, in most European countries, there isn’t a relevant difference between the percentage of religious or non-religious people who consider work very important. In only two states, religious people considered work important in life over 5% rather than not religious people: Croatia (+ 5.83%) and Serbia (+ 7.57%). Instead, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Estonia and Russia, not religious people consider most important work in life (Bosnia and Herzegovina +5.58%, Estonia +8.41%, Russia +8.85%).
On the other hand, believers and non-believers differ in their value on whether work is a duty towards society.
Chart: Percentage of believers minus non-believers people that agree or agree strongly that work is a duty towards society
Source: Atlas of European Values
There are two ways in which individuals place work at or near the centre of their lives. For some people hard work as intrinsically good and as almost a moral duty. In contrast, they regard leisure somewhat suspiciously because of its potential to harm both persons and society. On the other hand, there are people for who the personal talents are independent of work and that perceive leisure as inherently valuable. The level of this difference for each European country can be calculated using the respondents’ opinions about the following five statements:
- To fully develop your talents, you need to have a job,
- It is humiliating to receive money without having to work for it,
- People who don’t work, turn lazy,
- Work is a duty towards society,
- Work should always come first, even if it means less spare time.
Chart: The work in the centre of lives, mean of five statements
Source: Atlas of European Values
What is interesting is the difference between young and elderly people’s agreement about the sentence ‘work should always come first even if it means less spare time’. In all states young people agree less than elderly individuals with the statement; in three states (Slovakia, Azerbaijan and Turkey) this difference is less than 1%, but in as many as 25 states, this difference ranges between 18% and 59%.
Chart: Percentage of agreement with ‘work should always come first even if it means less spare time’ in different age
Source: Atlas of European Values
How individuals perceive work can be different, shaping their attitudes and values. For some people, work is perceived as a necessity and has a negative connotation. In this view, it is seen to achieve external goals, often characterized by monotony and lack of fulfilment. This perspective, extrinsic or ‘instrumental’ work orientation, emphasizes external factors such as income, working conditions, and benefits. The nature of the job is seen as less important than the external rewards it brings.
Conversely, some people have an intrinsic work orientation that views work as a source of personal development and growth and highlights the inherent value of the work. It goes beyond the external rewards and underscores the importance of engaging, interesting work that allows individuals to take initiative, assume responsibility, and utilize their capacities for achievement.
Chart: Percentage of people who consider most important extrinsic values minus the percentage of people who consider intrinsic value important
Source: Atlas of European Values
To study in depth and become acquainted with our studies on the European Value of Work, please refer to publications based on the EVS data and listed in the EVS Bibliography (the EVS Bibliography is annually updated) of which you can find below an excerpt of the latest:
Abbas, Joan and Chrisp, Joe (2023): “Working Hard or Hardly Working? Examining the Politics of In-Work Conditionality in the UK”. In: Social Policy and Society 22 (1): 31-52.
Abellán, Miguel (2023): “Catholics, Protestants and Muslims: Similar work ethics, different social and political ethics”. In: Journal of Comparative Economics 51 (3): 778-815.
Aldjic, Klaudia, & Farrell, Wendy (2022). Work and Espoused National Cultural Values of Generation Z in Austria. European Journal of Management Issues, 30(2), 100-115. https://doi.org/10.15421/192210
Alfano, Vincenzo (2022): “Work ethics, stay-at-home measures and COVID-19 diffusion: How is the pandemic afected by the way people perceive work?”. In: The European Journal of Health Economics 23: 893–901.
Asuyama, Yoko (2020). “International trade and the beliefs in hard work”. Applied Economics Letters 28 (11): 921-925. First published online: June 26, 2020, https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2020.1785618
Colombo, Francesco and Dinas, Elias (2023): “Networks of Grievances: Social Capital and Mainstream Party Decline”. In: Comparative Political Studies 56 (3): 363-394.
Goedderz, Alexandra and Calanchini, Jimmy (2023): “Regional traditional gender stereotypes predict the representation of women in the workforce in 35 countries across five continents”. In: Current Research in Ecological and Social Psychology 5: 1-13.
Hajdu, Gábor and Sik, Endre (2019): “Are the work values of the younger generations changing?”. In: Youth Labor in Transition: Inequalities, Mobility, and Policies in Europe, edited by O’Reilly Jacqueline, Janine Leschke, Renate Ortlieb Martin Seeleib-Kaiser and Paola Villa, 629-659. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://iris.unito.it/retrieve/handle/2318/1693428/482790/9780190864798.pdf
Hajdu, Gábor, & Endre Sik (2018.) Age, Period, and Cohort Differences in Work Centrality and Work Values, Societies, 8(1):11. https://doi.org/10.3390/soc8010011
Horn, Alexander; Kevins, Anthony and Van Kersbergen, Kees (2023): “Workfare and Attitudes toward the Unemployed: New Evidence on Policy Feedback from 1990 to 2018”. In: Comparative Political Studies: 1-33.
Joshanloo, Mohsen (2023): “A New Index of Perceived Job Quality in 116 Countries: Associations with Working Hours and Other National Characteristics”. In: Social Sciences 12 (9): 1-13.
Kozák, Michal. 2021. «The Work Ethic and Social Change in the Czech Republic and Slovakia – A Modernisation Theory Perspective». Czech Sociological Review 56(6):741–65. doi: 10.13060/csr.2020.049
Kremer, M., Went, R., & Engbersen, G. (2021). Better Work: The Impact of Automation, Flexibilization and Intensification of Work. Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-78682-3
Mascherini, Massimiliano (2019): “Origins and future of the concept of NEETs in the European policy agenda”. In: Youth Labor in Transition: Inequalities, Mobility, and Policies in Europe, edited by O’Reilly Jacqueline, Janine Leschke, Renate Ortlieb, Martin Seeleib-Kaiser and Paola Villa, 503-529. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://iris.unito.it/retrieve/handle/2318/1693428/482790/9780190864798.pdf .
Meda, Dominique and Vendramin, Patricia (2017): “Reinventing Work in Europe: Value, Generations and Labour”. Cham:Palgrave Macmillan. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-39525-8
Méda, Dominique (2019): “Three scenarios for the future of work”. In: International Labour Review 158 (4): 627-652. https://doi.org/10.1111/ilr.12157
Migchelbrink, Koen (2023): “Public sector workers’ support for technocracy. Comparative evidence from 25 European countries”. In: Governance: 1-21.
Mullerova, Alzbeta (2016): “Workers or mothers? Czech welfare and gender role preferences in transition”. EconomiX – CNRS, Université de Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense
Podmenik, Darka and Gorišek, Maruša (2020): “Is youth unemployment in EU countries structural?”. In: Research in social change 12 (2): 80-105. https://www.fuds.si/sites/default/files/prilogeaktualnosti/rsc_volume_12_issue_2_may_2020_1.pdf#page=80
Roex, Karlijn L. A. and Rözer, Jesper J. (2017): “The Social Norm to Work and the Well-Being of the Short- and Long-TermUnemployed”. In: Social Indicators Research. First published online: August 09, 2017, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-017-1723-0
Roosmaa, Eve-Liis; Reiska, Epp; Stasiowski, Jędrzej; Bertolini, Sonia and Torrioni, Paola Maria (2021): “Meanings of work in the narratives of Italian, Estonian, and Polish young people who experience labour market insecurity”. In: Social Exclusion of Youth in Europe. The Multifaceted Consequences of Labour Market Insecurity, edited by Marge Unt, Michael Gebel, Sonia Bertolini, Vassiliki Deliyanni-Kouimtzi and Dirk Hofäcker, 139-165. Bristol: Bristol University Press
Gesthuizen, M., Kovarek, D., & Rapp, C. (2019). Extrinsic and Intrinsic Work Values: Findings on Equivalence in Different Cultural Contexts. The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 682(1), 60-83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716219829016
Sage, Daniel (2019): “Unemployment, wellbeing and the power of the work ethic: Implications for social policy”. In: Critical Social Policy 39 (2): 205-228. First published online: june 25, 2018, https://doi.org/10.1177/0261018318780910
Sawicka, Maja and Karlińska, Agnieszka (2021): “Survival or Self-Actualization? Meanings of Work in Contemporary Poland”. In: Polish Sociological Review 214 (2): 199-220
Schilpzand, Annemiek and de Jong, Eelke (2021): “Work ethic and economic development: An investigation into Weber’s thesis”. In: European Journal of Political Economy 66: 1-13. First published online: October 8, 2020, 102 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2020.101958 .
Schröder, Martin (2023): “Work Motivation Is Not Generational but Depends on Age and Period”. In: Journal of Business and Psychology: 1-12.
Voicu, B. (2022). Changes in Work Values Under the Influence of International Migration. Open Press TiU. https://doi.org/10.26116/09eq-y488